Pre- Modern Art: Ajanta Caves

The Ajanta Caves are believed to have been excavated during two distinct phases - the Hinayana phase (2nd century BCE to 1st century CE) and the Mahayana phase (5th century CE). These caves served as monastic retreats for Buddhist monks and centers of religious worship, meditation, and artistic expression. The patronage for the construction of these caves came from various ruling dynasties of ancient India, including the Satavahanas, the Vakatakas, and the Gupta Empire.

Excavated over two distinct periods spanning approximately six centuries, the initial phase, attributed to the Satavahana Dynasty's patronage between the 2nd and 1st centuries BCE, predominantly features aniconic art with minimal anthropomorphic depictions of Buddha. Conversely, the subsequent phase, linked to the reign of the Vakataka Dynasty, possibly during the 5th century CE under King Harisena, showcases Mahayana Buddhist motifs with elaborate architectural embellishments and figurative representations of Buddha and bodhisattvas. Despite meticulous planning and substantial labor involvement, evidenced by inscriptions suggesting royal patronage, some caves were left unfinished, prompting speculation of an abrupt cessation likely following Harisena's demise.

The earliest recorded instances of decorative patterns in both sculpture and painting can be traced back to the 1st century B.C., notably seen in the adornments of the Barhut stupa. Subsequently, sites like Sanchi, Amaravati, and Ajanta caves showcase a plethora of motifs, alongside variations thereof, which artists derived from their observations of nature's fauna and flora. These motifs likely originated from initial models, possibly wooden or painted, akin to architectural designs. Artists enjoyed considerable freedom to exercise their imagination and creativity within this framework.

Citrapatra, translating to the 'creeper design,' is characterized by its flowing, curvilinear style. Notably, certain paintings at Ajanta caves depict narratives from the previous lives of Buddha, as recounted in the Jātakas. Besides the Jātakas, many decorative motifs predominantly adorn ceilings, walls, and pillars, serving as ornamental fillers. These motifs appear to be imaginative creations by artists

The earliest recorded instances of decorative patterns in both sculpture and painting can be traced back to the 1st century B.C., notably seen in the adornments of the Barhut stupa. Subsequently, sites like Sanchi, Amaravati, and Ajanta showcase a plethora of motifs, alongside variations thereof, which artists derived from their observations of nature's fauna and flora. These motifs likely originated from initial models, possibly wooden or painted, akin to architectural designs. Artists enjoyed considerable freedom to exercise their imagination and creativity within this framework.

The earliest recorded instances of decorative patterns in both sculpture and painting can be traced back to the 1st century B.C., notably seen in the adornments of the Barhut stupa. Subsequently, sites like Sanchi, Amaravati, and Ajanta showcase a plethora of motifs, alongside variations thereof, which artists derived from their observations of nature's fauna and flora. These motifs likely originated from initial models, possibly wooden or painted, akin to architectural designs. Artists enjoyed considerable freedom to exercise their imagination and creativity within this framework.

Citrapatra, translating to the 'creeper design,' is characterized by its flowing, curvilinear style. Notably, certain paintings at Ajanta depict narratives from the previous lives of Buddha, as recounted in the Jātakas. Besides the Jātakas, many decorative motifs predominantly adorn ceilings, walls, and pillars, serving as ornamental fillers. These motifs appear to be imaginative creations by artists.

The Ajanta caves are an important archaeological site with artworks dating from the 2nd century B.C. to the 6th or 7th century A.D. The caves are numbered, but the numbers don't show their age. There are 30 caves, including unfinished ones, with five prayer halls and the rest monastic dwellings. The earliest caves, from around 1st and 2nd centuries B.C., are modest in size and include prayer halls and monasteries. Originally, all caves had beautiful paintings, but only 13 still have significant ones. Scholars disagree on dating the paintings based on style, but inscriptions provide more accurate dates. For example, an inscription in Cave No. 10 suggests it was made in the 2nd century B.C. Another phase of cave construction started around the 5th century A.D., with most caves from this period. Some caves were built during the Vakataka rule, notably Caves No. 16 and 17. The caves remained in use even after the Vakataka period, as confirmed by records from a Chinese traveler. An inscription from the 8th or 9th century indicates later activity at the site. However, the age of the murals may not always match the age of the caves themselves.

A cluster of about thirty rock-hewn Buddhist cave sanctuaries and monastic dwellings, the Ajanta caves were chiseled into the rock facade of a semi-circular ravine stretching 550 meters along the Waghora River in Aurangabad, Maharashtra. Named after the nearby village of Ajintha, they were crafted between the 2nd century BCE and the 5th century CE, representing prime exemplars of early Buddhist artistic and architectural prowess globally. Most renowned for harboring the Ajanta frescoes adorning the interiors, narrating tales from Buddha's life and adorned with various ornamental motifs, they constitute the largest extant corpus of paintings from the early centuries CE.

While the original appellation for the site remains obscure, inscriptions within the caves designate them as kandara (natural caverns), shailagriham (stone abodes), and layanam (dwelling caves). The earliest documented references to the caves stem from the records of Chinese travelers Faxian and Xuanzang, dated to the 5th and 7th centuries CE respectively. Abandoned around the 8th century CE, the caves were serendipitously rediscovered in 1819 by British officer John Smith.

Classifiable into two main types, chaityas or prayer halls with a stupa, and viharas or monk residences, the former are fewer in number and predominantly belong to the earlier period. The majority of the caves constitute viharas characterized by monk cells surrounding a central hall, evolving in later phases to include ornate pillars and shrines. Influenced by Gupta artistry despite the Gupta Dynasty's absence in the Deccan region, the Ajanta murals and sculptures also reflect regional artistic influences and demonstrate remarkable precision and balance in composition.

Cave 1 at Ajanta, originally positioned less prominently at the end of the row, was likely one of the last caves to be excavated. It lacks signs of full worship, suggesting it was never formally inaugurated. Emperor Harishena of the Vākāṭaka dynasty is believed to have sponsored the cave's construction. Its frieze displays various animals, celestial beings, and monks. This large cave, adorned with intricate carvings and relief sculptures, has a forecourt and porch leading to a hall supported by pillars. The hall houses a shrine with an impressive seated Buddha image. The walls and ceilings of Cave 1 were adorned with paintings, though the full scheme was never finished. These paintings depict scenes from the Buddha's life, Jataka stories, and other devotional themes, with notable frescoes including Padmapani and Vajrapani, as well as stories like the Temptation of Mara and the miracle of Sravasti.

Cave 2, located next to Cave 1, is renowned for its well-preserved paintings on walls, ceilings, and pillars. Similar in appearance to Cave 1, it showcases feminine themes and intricate rock carvings. Though incomplete and lacking consistency, it offers a glimpse into 5th-century life, including a fresco depicting children in a school setting. Carved mainly between 475 and 477 CE, it likely received sponsorship from a woman associated with Emperor Harisena. The cave features a distinct porch design and robust pillars adorned with ornate motifs. Inside, four colonnades support the ceiling, with decorative carvings depicting goddess Hariti among other themes. The paintings illustrate various Jataka tales and Buddhist legends, with a focus on noble women, suggesting female patronage. The rear wall of the porch features a central doorway flanked by square windows, enhancing the interior's illumination.

Cave 3 represents an unfinished endeavor, believed to have been initiated towards the conclusion of the site's construction period but abandoned shortly thereafter. It serves as an incomplete monastery, with only preliminary excavations of a pillared veranda completed. This cave was one of the final projects undertaken at the site, with its initiation estimated around circa 477 CE, just prior to the unexpected demise of Emperor Harisena. The work ceased after the initial carving of a rudimentary entrance to the hall.

Cave 4, sponsored by Mathura, is the largest vihara among the inaugural group, indicating significant wealth and influence. Positioned at a higher level, its construction likely aimed to overcome the poor rock quality at lower levels or accommodate planned cisterns. Dating varies, with the Archaeological Survey of India placing it in the 6th century CE, while Spink suggests an inauguration around 463 CE. The cave features a colossal Buddha statue in preaching pose flanked by bodhisattvas and celestial nymphs. Its squarish plan includes a verandah, hypostylar hall, sanctum with an antechamber, and unfinished cells, with major sculptures completed but most interior elements left unpainted.

Cave 5, an unfinished excavation planned as a monastery, saw construction initiated around 465 CE but later abandoned due to geological flaws. Though resumed in 475 CE, it was ultimately left incomplete as focus shifted to Cave 6. Devoid of sculpture and architectural elements except for an ornate door frame, it serves as a testament to the challenges faced in cave construction.

Cave 6, a two-storey monastery likely built between 460 and 470 CE, features intricately carved walls and door frames adorned with mythical creatures and decorative motifs. Paintings within depict Buddhist themes and devotional worship practices, showcasing a blend of artistic expression and religious devotion.

Cave 7, a single-storey monastery completed by about 469 CE, boasts a grand facade with intricate carvings and numerous art panels narrating Buddhist themes. Its construction reflects meticulous craftsmanship and religious reverence.

Cave 8, possibly dating to the earliest period of construction, remains unfinished due to geological faults disrupting stable carvings. While debate surrounds its chronology, its significance lies in its potential status as one of the oldest Mahayana monasteries excavated in India.

Cave 9, a chaitya or worship hall from the 2nd to 1st century BCE, features distinct architectural elements and paintings added in the 5th century, depicting scenes from the life of the Buddha. A Sanskrit inscription dated to the 2nd century BCE adds historical significance to the cave.

Cave 10, a vast prayer hall dated to about the 1st century BCE, confirms Buddhism's influence in South Asia. Its inscriptions suggest community sponsorship, and its paintings, depicting Jataka tales and devotional scenes, offer insight into religious practices and artistic traditions of the time.

Cave 11 is a monastery constructed between approximately 462 and 478 CE. Its veranda showcases octagonal shaft pillars with square bases and evidence of floral designs on the ceiling. Inside, it features a hall with a long rock bench leading to six rooms and a sanctum with a seated Buddha against an incomplete stupa, accompanied by four cells. Paintings within depict Bodhisattvas, with the Padmapani, a couple praying, and peafowl among the best-preserved. The sanctum includes a circumambulation path around the Buddha.

Cave 12, believed to be from the 1st century BCE according to ASI or solely the 1st century BCE according to Spink, is a Hinayana monastery with its front wall collapsed. It contains twelve cells with two stone beds each.

Cave 13, another early monastery, consists of a hall with seven cells, also with two stone beds each, suggesting a later dating between the 1st and 2nd centuries CE.

Cave 14 is an unfinished monastery located above Cave 13, featuring an entrance door frame adorned with sala bhanjikas.

Cave 15, a more complete monastery, includes an eight-celled hall leading to a sanctum and antechamber, with reliefs depicting the Buddha and a door frame adorned with pigeons.

Cave 15A, the smallest cave, is a Hinayana cave with three cells around a central hall, featuring decorated doors with rail and arch patterns.

Cave 16, sponsored by Varahadeva, a minister of Vakataka king Harishena, is a Mahayana monastery that played a crucial role in tracing the chronology of the cave complex's construction. It features numerous paintings depicting various Jataka tales and Buddhist themes.

Cave 17, sponsored by Varahadeva and additional donors, is a large vihara known for its well-preserved paintings narrating Jataka tales and extolling human virtues.

Cave 18 is a small space with two octagonal pillars, serving an unclear purpose.

Cave 19, a worship hall, features painted depictions of the Buddha and intricate sculptures including Naga figures and Yaksha dvarapalas.

Cave 20, constructed by king Upendragupta, is a monastery known for its exquisite detailing and sculptures, including seven Buddhas with attendants on its lintel.

Cave 21, a hall with twelve rock-cut rooms for monks, showcases carvings of animals, flowers, and apsaras on its pillars.

Cave 22, reached by a flight of steps, contains a seated Buddha and paintings of Manushi-Buddhas with Maitreya.

Cave 23, similar to Cave 21, features unfinished designs and different pillar decorations.

Cave 24, one of the largest monasteries after Cave 4, showcases complex capitals on its pillars and medallion reliefs depicting loving couples and anthropomorphic arts. 

Cave 25 is a monastery without a sanctum, featuring a hall similar to other monasteries but with an enclosed courtyard and excavated at an upper level.

Cave 26, a worship hall similar to Cave 19 but larger, includes elements of a vihara design and features elaborate sculptures and inscriptions. The cave's construction was likely focused on stone sculpture rather than paintings, aiming for enduring endurance. Its elaborate sculptures include depictions of the Mahaparinirvana of Buddha and the Temptations by Mara, with a rock-cut stupa at its center.

Cave 27, a monastery possibly intended as an attachment to Cave 26, has two damaged storeys with the upper level partially collapsed, featuring a plan similar to other monasteries.

Cave 28, an unfinished monastery located at the westernmost end of the Ajanta complex, is only partially excavated and barely accessible.

Cave 29, another unfinished monastery at the highest level of the Ajanta complex, was apparently unnoticed when the initial numbering system was established, physically located between Caves 20 and 21.

Cave 30, discovered in 1956 due to a landslide covering the footpath leading to Cave 16, is a Hinayana monastery cave dating back to the 2nd and 1st century BCE. It features three cells with stone beds and pillows, inscriptions in an unknown script, and a platform with a view of the river ravine and forest cover.

The caves' discovery significantly reshaped British perceptions of Indian art, catalyzing extensive documentation and reproduction efforts in the 19th and 20th centuries. Recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983, the Ajanta caves continue to face conservation challenges, with some paintings lost to natural deterioration and others damaged by inadequate preservation techniques. Recent endeavors prioritize the thorough study, conservation, and meticulous restoration of the site's architectural and artistic treasures.

Cohen, Richard S. “Nāga, Yakṣiṇī, Buddha: Local Deities and Local Buddhism at Ajanta.” History of Religions, vol. 37, no. 4, 1998, pp. 360–400. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3176402.

Somathilake, Mahinda. “Ajanta Murals and Their Chronology: A Critical Analysis.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Sri Lanka, vol. 61, no. 1, 2016, pp. 1–31. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/45211170.